Computer Hardware Essay

I. LECTURE OVERVIEW Foundation Concepts: Computer Hardware, reviews trends and developments in microcomputer, midrange, and mainframe computer systems; basic computer system concepts; and the major types of technologies used in peripheral devices for computer input, output, and storage. Computer Systems – Major types of computer systems are summarized in Figure 13.2. A computer is a system of information processing components that perform input, processing, output, storage, and control functions. Its hardware components include input and output devices, a central processing unit (CPU), and primary and secondary storage devices. The major functions and hardware in a computer system are summarized in Figure 13.9 Microcomputer Systems – Microcomputers are used as personal computers, network computers, personal digital assistants, technical workstations, and information appliances. Like most computer systems today, microcomputers are interconnected in a variety of telecommunications networks. This typically includes local area networks, client/server networks, intranets and extranets, and the Internet. Other Computer Systems – Midrange computers are increasingly used as powerful network servers, and for many multiuser business data processing and scientific applications. Mainframe computers are larger and more powerful than most midsize computers. They are usually faster, have more memory capacity, and can support more network users and peripheral devices. They are designed to handle the information processing needs of large organizations with high volumes of transaction processing, or with complex computational problems. Supercomputers are a special category of extremely powerfu l mainframe computer systems designed for massive computational assignments. II. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Learning Objective †¢ Identify the major types, trends, and uses of microcomputer, midrange and mainframe computer systems. †¢ Outline the major technologies and uses of computer peripherals for input, output, and storage. †¢ Identify and give examples of the components and functions of a computer system. †¢ Identify the computer systems and peripherals you would acquire or recommend for a business of your choice, and explain the reasons for your selections. III. LECTURE NOTES Section 1: Computer Systems: End User and Enterprise Computing INTRODUCTION All computers are systems of input, processing, output, storage, and control components. Technology is evolving at a rapid pace, and new forms of input, output, processing, and storage devices continue to enter the market. Analyzing City of Richmond and Tim Beaty Builders We can learn a lot about innovative business uses of PDAs from this case. Take a few minutes to read it, and we will discuss it (See City of Richmond and Tim Beaty Builders in Section IX). TYPES OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS -[Figure 13.2] There are several major categories of computer systems with a variety of characteristics and capabilities. Thus, computer systems are typically classified as: †¢ Mainframe computers †¢ Midrange computers †¢ Microcomputers These categories are attempts to describe the relative computing power provided by different computing platforms or types of computers therefore, they are not precise classifications. Some experts predict the merging or disappearance of several computer categories. They feel that many midrange and mainframe systems have been made obsolete by the power and versatility of client/server networks of microcomputers and servers. Most recently, some  industry experts have predicted that the emergence of network computers and information appliances for applications on the Internet and corporate intranets will replace many personal computers, especially in large organisations and in the home computer market. MICROCOMPUTER SYSTEMS Microcomputers are the smallest but most important categories of computers systems for business people and consumers. They are also referred to as personal computers (or PCs). The computing power of current microcomputers exceeds that of the mainframe computers of previous generations at a fraction of their cost. They have become powerful-networked professional workstations for use by end users in business. Microcomputers  categorised by size 1. Handheld 2. Notebook 3. Laptop 4. Portable 5. Desktop 6. Floor-standing Microcomputers  categorised by use 1. Home 2. Personal 3. Professional 4. Workstation 5. Multi-user Systems Microcomputers  categorised by special purpose 1. Workstation Computers 2. Network Servers 3. Personal Digital Assistants Workstation Computers – some microcomputers are powerful workstation  computers (technical work stations) that support applications with heavy mathematical computing and graphics display demands such as computeraided design (CAD) in engineering, or investment and portfolio analysis in the securities industry. Network Servers – are usually more powerful microcomputers that co-ordinate telecommunications and resource  sharing in small local area networks (LANs), and Internet and intranet websites. This is the fastest growing microcomputer application category. Network Computers: †¢ Network Computers (NCs) are a major new microcomputer category designed primarily for use with the Internet and corporate intranets by clerical workers, operational employees, and knowledge workers with specialised or limited computing applications. In-between NCs and full-featured PCs are stripped-down PCs known as NetPCs or legacy-free PCs. NetPCs are designed for the Internet and a limited range of applications within a company. Examples are: Dell’s Webpc, Compaq’s IPaq, HP’s e-PC, and eMachine’s eOne. Network computers (also called thin clients) are low-cost, sealed, networked microcomputers with no or minimal disk storage. Users of network computers depend primarily on Internet and intranet servers for their operating system and web browser, Java-enabled application software, and data access and storage. Main attractions of network computers over full-featured PCs are their low cost to: †¢ Purchase †¢ Upgrade †¢ Maintenance †¢ Support Other benefits to businesses include: †¢ Ease of software distribution and licensing †¢ Computing platform standardisation †¢ Reduced end user support requirements †¢ Improved manageability through centralised management and enterprisewide control of computer network resources. Information Appliances The market is offering a number of gadgets and information appliances that offer users the capability to perform enable host of basic computational chores. Examples of some information appliances include: †¢ Personal Digital Assistants – (PDAs) are designed for convenient mobile communications and computing. PDAs use touch screens, pen-based handwriting recognition, or keyboards to help mobile workers send and receive E-mail, access the Web, and exchange information such as appointments, to-do lists, and sales contacts with their desktop PCs or web servers. †¢ Set-top boxes and video-game consoles that connect to home TV sets. These devices enable you to surf the Web or send and receive E-mail and watch TV programs or play video games at the same time. †¢ Wireless PDAs and cellular and PCS phones and wired telephone-based appliances that can send and receive E-mail and access the Web. Computer Terminals Computer terminals are undergoing a major conversion to networked computer devices. For example: †¢ Dumb terminals are keyboard/video monitor devices with limited processing capabilities, to intelligent terminals, which are modified networked PCs, network computers or other microcomputer-powered network devices. Intelligent terminals can perform data entry and some information processing tasks independently. †¢ Networked terminals which may be Windows terminals that are dependent on network servers for Windows software, processing power, and storage, or Internet terminals, which depend on Internet or intranet website servers for their operating systems and application software. †¢ Transaction terminals are a form of intelligent terminal. Uses can be found in banks retail stores, factories, and other work sites. Examples are ATM’s, factory production recorders, and POS terminals. MIDRANGE COMPUTER SYSTEMS Midrange computers, including minicomputers and high-end network servers, are  multi-user systems that can  manage networks of PCs and terminals. Characteristics of midrange computers include: †¢ Generally, midrange computers are general-purpose computers that are larger and more powerful than most microcomputers but are smaller and less powerful than most large mainframes. †¢ Cost less to buy, operate, and maintain than mainframe computers. †¢ Have become popular as powerful network servers to help manage large Internet websites, corporate intranets and extranets, and client/server networks. †¢ Electronic commerce and other business uses of the Internet are popular high-end server applications, as are integrated enterprisewide manufacturing, distribution, and financial applications. †¢ Data warehouse management, data mining, and online analytical processing are contributing to the growth of high-end servers and other midrange systems. †¢ First became popular as minicomputers for scientific research, instrumentation systems, engineering analysis, and industrial process monitoring and control. Minicomputers could easily handle such uses because these applications are narrow in scope and do not demand the processing versatility of mainframe systems. †¢ Serve as industrial process-control and manufacturing plant computers and they play a major role in computeraided manufacturing (CAM). †¢ Take the form of powerful technical workstations for computer-aided design (CAD) and other computation and graphics-intensive applications. †¢ Are used as front-end computers to assist mainframe computers in telecommunications processing and network management. †¢ Can function in ordinary operating environments (do not need air conditioning or electrical wiring). †¢ Smaller models of minicomputers do not need a staff of specialists to operate them. MIDRANGE COMPUTER APPLICATIONS Serve as industrial process-control and manufacturing plant computers. Play a major role in computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). Serve as powerful technical workstations for computer-aided design (CAD) and other computation and graphics-intensive applications Serve as front-end computers to assist mainframe computers in telecommunications processing and network management. Midrange Computer as Network Server: †¢ Electronic commerce and other business uses of the Internet are popular high-end server applications, as are integrated enterprisewide manufacturing, distribution, and financial applications. †¢ Other applications, like data warehouse management, data mining, and online analytical processing are contributing to the growth of high-end servers and other midrange systems. †¢ Serve as powerful network servers to help manage large Internet web sites, corporate Intranets and extranets, and client/server networks MAINFRAME COMPUTER SYSTEMS Mainframe computers are large, fast, and powerful computer systems. Characteristics of mainframe computers include: †¢ They are physically larger and more powerful than micros and minis. †¢ Can process hundreds of millions of instructions per second (MIPS). †¢ Have large primary storage capacities. Main memory capacity can range from hundreds of megabytes to many gigabytes of primary storage. †¢ Mainframes have slimmed down drastically in the last few years, dramatically reducing air-conditioning needs, electronic power consumption, and floor space requirements, and thus their acquisition and operating costs. †¢ Sales of mainframes have increased due to cost reductions and the increase  in applications such as data mining and warehousing, decision support, and electronic commerce. Mainframe Computer Applications: †¢ Handle the information processing needs of major corporations and government agencies with many employees and customers. †¢ Handle enormous and complex computational problems. †¢ Used in organisations processing great volumes of transactions. †¢ Handle great volumes of complex calculations involved in scientific and engineering analyses and simulations of complex design projects. †¢ Serve as superservers for the large client/server networks and high-volume Internet web sites of large companies. †¢ Are becoming a popular business-computing platform for data mining and warehousing, and electronic commerce applications. Supercomputer Systems: The term supercomputer describes a category of extremely powerful computer systems specifically designed for scientific, engineering, and business applications requiring extremely high-speeds for massive numeric computations. Supercomputer Applications: †¢ Used by government research agencies, large universities, and major corporations. †¢ Are used for applications such as global weather forecasting, military defence systems, computational cosmology and astronomy, microprocessor research and design, large scale data mining, large time-sharing networks, and so on. †¢ Use parallel processing architectures of interconnected microprocessors (which can execute many instructions at the same time in parallel). †¢ Can perform arithmetic calculations at speeds of billions of floating-point operations per second (gigaflops). Teraflop (1 trillion floating-point operations per second) supercomputers, which use advanced massively parallel  processing (MPP) designs of thousands of interconnected microprocessors, are becoming available. †¢ Purchase price for large supercomputers are in the $5 million to $50 million range. Mini-supercomputers: The use of symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) and distributed shared memory (DSM) designs of smaller numbers of interconnected microprocessors has spawned a breed of mini-supercomputer with prices that start in the hundreds of thousands of dollars. TECHNICAL NOTE: THE COMPUTER SYSTEM CONCEPTS – [Figure 13.9] As a business professional, you do not need a detailed technical knowledge of computers. However, you do need to understand some basic facts and concepts about computer systems. This should help you be an informed and productive user of computer system resources. A computer is a system, an interrelated combination of components that perform the basic system functions of input, processing, output, storage, and control, thus providing end users with a powerful information-processing tool. Understanding the computer as a computer system is vital to the effective use and management of computers. A computer is a system of hardware devices organised according to the following system functions: †¢ Input. Examples of some input devices of a computer system include: 1. Keyboards 2. Touch Screens3. Light Pens 4. Electronic Mice 4. Optical Scanners 5. Voice Input They convert data into electronic machine-readable form for direct entry or through a telecommunications network into a computer system. Processing. The central processing unit (CPU) is the main processing component of a computer system. (In microcomputers, it is the main microprocessor). One of the CPU’s major components is the arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) that performs the arithmetic and logic functions required in computer processing. Components of the CPU include: 1. Control Unit 2. Arithmetic-Logic Unit 3. Primary Storage Unit Output. Convert electronic information produced by the computer system into human-intelligible form for presentation to end-users. Examples of output devices include: 1. Video Display Units 2. Audio Response Units 3. Printers Storage. The storage function of a computer system is used to store data and program instructions needed for processing. Storage devices include: 1. Primary Storage Unit (main memory) 2. Secondary Storage Devices (magnetic disk and tape units, optical disks) Control. The control unit of a CPU interprets computer program instructions and transmits directions to the other components of the computer system. Computer Processing Speeds: Operating speeds of computers are measured in a number of ways. For example: †¢ Milliseconds – Thousands of a second. Microseconds – Millionths of a second. Nanoseconds – Billionth of a second Picosecond – Trillionth of a second Other terminology used includes: Teraflop – used by some supercomputers MIPS – Million instructions per second Megahertz (MHz) – Millions of cycles per second Gigahertz (GHz) – Billions of cycles per second Clock Speed – used to rate microprocessors by the speed of their timing circuits and internal clock. Section II: Computer Peripherals: Input, Output, and Storage Technologies INTRODUCTION A computer is just a high-powered â€Å"processing box† without peripherals. Your personal computing needs will dictate the components you choose for our particular computing needs. Analyzing United Technologies and Eastman Kodak We can learn a lot about the business value of consolidating computer operations and systems from this case. Take a few minutes to read it, and we will discuss it (See United Technologies and Eastman Kodak in Section IX). PERIPHERALS Peripherals are the generic name for all input, output, and secondary storage devices that are part of a computer system. Peripherals depend on direct connections or telecommunications links to the central processing unit of a  computer system. Thus, all peripherals are online devices, that is, separate from, but can be electronically connected to and controlled by, a CPU. This is the opposite of off-line devices, which are separate from and not under the control of the CPU. INPUT TECHNOLOGY There has been a major trend toward the increased use of input technologies that provide a more natural user interface for computer users. More and more data and commands are being entered directly and easily into computer systems through pointing devices like electronic mice and touch pads, and technologies like optical scanning, handwriting recognition, and voice recognition. POINTING DEVICES Keyboards are still the most widely used devices for entering data and text into computer systems. However, pointing devices are a better alternative for issuing commands, making choices, and responding to prompts displayed on your video screen. They work with your operating system’s graphical user interface (GUI), which presents you with icons, menus, windows, buttons, bars, and so on, for your selection. Examples of pointing devices include: †¢ Electronic Mouse – A device used to move the cursor on the screen, as well as to issue commands and make icon and menu selections. †¢ Trackball – A device used to move the cursor on the display screen. Pointing Stick – A small buttonlike device, sometimes likened to the eraser head of a pencil. The cursor moves in the direction of the pressure you place on the track point. Touchpad – A small rectangular touch-sensitive surface usually placed below the keyboard. The cursor moves in the direction your finger moves on the pad. Touch Screens – A device that accepts data input by the placement of a finger on or close to the CRT screen. PEN-BASED COMPUTING Pen-based computing technologies are being used in many hand-held computers and personal digital assistants. These small PCs and PDAs contain fast processors and software that recognises and digitises handwriting, hand printing, and hand drawing. They have a pressure-sensitive layer like a graphics pad under their slatelike liquid crystal display (LCD) screen. A variety of penlike devices are available: Digitizer Pen – A photoelectronic device that can be used as a pointing device, or used to draw or write on a pressure-sensitive surface of a graphics tablet. Graphics Tablet – A device that allows an end user to draw or write on a pressure-sensitive tablet and has their handwriting or graphics digitised by the computer and accepted as input. SPEECH RECOGNITION SYSTEMS Speech recognition and voice response (in their infancy) promise to be the easiest method of data entry, word processing, and conversational computing, since speech is the easiest, most natural means of human communication. Speech recognition systems analyse and classify speech or vocal tract patterns and convert them into digital codes for entry into a computer system. Early voice recognition products used discrete speech recognition, where you had to pause between each spoken word. New continuous speech recognition (CSR) software recognises controlled, conversationally paced speech. Examples of continuous speech recognition software include: †¢ NaturallySpeaking by Dragon Systems †¢ ViaVoice by IBM †¢ VoiceXpress by Lernout & Hauspie †¢ FreeSpeech by Philips Areas where speech recognition systems are used include: †¢ Manufacturers use it for inspection, inventory, and quality control †¢ Airlines and parcel delivery companies use it for voice-directed sorting of baggage and parcels †¢ Voice activated GPS systems are being used in advanced car design †¢ Physicians use it to enter and printout prescriptions †¢ Gemmologists use it to free up their hands when inspecting and grading precious stones †¢ Handicapped individuals use voice-enabled software to operate their computers, e-mail, and surf the World Wide Web. Speaker-independent voice recognition systems allow a computer to understand a few words from a voice it has never heard before. They enable computers to respond to verbal and touch-tone input over the telephone. Examples include: †¢ Computerized telephone call switching †¢ Telemarketing surveys †¢ Bank pay-by-phone bill-paying services †¢ Stock quotations services †¢ University registration systems †¢ Customer credit and account balance inquiries OPTICAL SCANNING Optical scanning devices read text or graphics and convert them into digital input for a computer. Optical scanning enables the direct entry of data from source documents into a computer system. Popular uses of optical scanning include: †¢ Scanning pages of text and graphics into your computer for desktop publishing and web publishing applications. †¢ Scan documents into your system and organize them into folders as part of a document management library system for easy reference or retrieval.  There are many types of optical scanners, but they all employ photoelectric devices to scan the characters being read. Reflected light patterns of the  data are converted into electronic impulses that are then accepted as input into the computer system. Optical scanning technology known as optical character recognition (OCR) can read special-purpose characters and codes. OCR scanners are used to read characters and codes on:   Merchandise tags Product labels Credit card receipts Utility bills Insurance premiums Airline tickets Sort mail Score tests Process business and government forms Devices such as handheld optical scanning wands are used to read OCR coding on merchandise tags and other media. Many business applications involve reading bar code, a code that utilises bars to represent characters. One common example is the Universal Produce Code (UPC) bar coding that you see on packages of food items and many other products. OTHER INPUT TECHNOLOGIES Magnetic stripe technology is a familiar form of data entry that helps computers read credit cards. The dark magnetic stripe on the back of such cards is the same iron oxide coating as on magnetic tape. Smart cards that embed a microprocessor chip and several kilobytes of memory into debit, credit, and other cards are popular in Europe, and becoming available in the United States. Digital cameras and digital video cameras enable you to shoot, store, and download still photos or full motion video with audio into your PC. Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) is machine recognition of characters printed with magnetic ink. Primarily used for check processing by the banking industry. OUTPUT TECHNOLOGIES Computers provide information in a variety of forms. Video displays and printed documents have been, and still are, the most common forms of output from computer systems. But other natural and attractive output technologies such as voice response systems and multimedia output are increasingly found along with video displays in business applications. VIDEO OUTPUT Video displays are the most common type of computer output. Most desktop computers rely on video monitors that use cathode ray tube (CRT) technology. Usually, the clarity of the video display depends on the type of video monitor you use and the graphics circuit board installed in your computer. A high-resolution, flicker-free monitor is especially important if you spend a lot of time viewing multimedia on CDs or the Web, or complex graphical displays of many software packages. The biggest use of liquid crystal displays (LCDs) is to provide a visual display capability for portable microcomputers and PDAs. LCD displays need significantly less electric current and provide a thin, flat display. Advances in technology such as active matrix and dual scan capabilities have improved the color and clarity of LCD displays. PRINTED OUTPUT After video displays, printed output is the most common form of output displays. Most personal computer systems rely on inkjet or laser printers to produce permanent (hard copy) output in high-quality printed form. Printed output is still a common form of business communications, and is frequently required for legal documentation. †¢ Inkjet printers – Spray ink onto a page one line at a time. They are popular, low-cost printers for microcomputer systems. They are quiet, produce several pages per minute of high-quality output, and can print both black-and-white and high-quality colour graphics. Laser Printers – Use an electrostatic process similar to a photocopying machine to produce many pages per minute of high-quality black-and-white output. More expensive colour laser printers and multifunction inkjet and laser models that print, fax, scan, and copy are other popular choices for business offices. STORAGE TRADE-OFFS Data and information need to be stored after input, during processing, and before output. Computer-based information systems rely primarily on the memory circuits and secondary storage devices of computer systems to accomplish the storage function. Major trends in primary and secondary storage methods: †¢ Progress in very-large scale integration (VLSI), which packs millions of memory circuit elements on tiny semiconductor memory chips, are responsible for continuing increases in the main-memory capacity of computers. †¢ Secondary storage capacities are also expected to escalate into the billions and trillions of characters, due primarily to the use of optical media.  Storage Trade-offs: Speed, capacity, and cost relationships. †¢ Note the cost/speed/capacity trade-offs as one moves from semiconductor memories to magnetic media, such as magnetic disks and tapes, to optical disks. †¢ High-speed storage media cost more per byte and provide lower capacities. †¢ Large capacity storage media cost less per byte but are slower †¢ Semiconductor memories are used mainly for primary storage, though they are sometimes used as high-speed secondary storage devices. †¢ Magnetic disk and tape and optical disk devices are used as secondary storage devices to greatly enlarge the storage capacity of computer systems. †¢ Most primary storage circuits use RAM (random access memory) chips, which lose their contents when electrical power is interrupted †¢ Secondary storage devices provide a more permanent type of storage media for storage of data and programs. Computer Storage Fundamentals: [Figure 13.20] Data is processed and stored in a computer system through the presence or absence of electronic or magnetic signals in the computer’s circuitry in the media it uses. This is called a â€Å"two-state† or binary representation of data, since the computer and media can exhibit only two possible states or conditions – ON (1) or OFF (0). Computer storage elements: †¢ Bit – is the smallest element of data, (binary digit) which can have a value of zero or one. The capacity of  memory chips is usually expressed in terms of bits. Byte – is the basic grouping of bits that the computer operates as a single unit. It typically consists of 8 bits and is used to represent one character of data in most computer coding schemes (e.g. 8 bits = 1 byte). The capacity of a computer’s memory and secondary storage devices is usually expressed in terms of bytes. ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) Pronounced: EB SEE DICK Storage capacities are frequently measured in: Kilobyte = 1,000 bytes Megabyte = 1,000,000 bytes Gigabyte = 1,000,000,000 bytes Terabyte = 1,000,000,000,000 bytes Petabyte = 1,000,000,000,000,000 bytes Exabyte = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes Zettabyte = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes Yottabyte = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes Direct and Sequential Access †¢ Direct Access – Primary storage media such as semiconductor memory chips are called direct access or random access memories (RAM). Magnetic disk devices are frequently called direct access storage devices (DASDs). The terms direct access and random access describe the same concept. They mean that an element of data or instructions can be directly stored and retrieved by selecting and using any of the locations on the storage media. They also mean that each storage position (1) has a unique address and (2) can be individually accessed in approximately the same length of time without having to search through other storage positions. Sequential Access – sequential access storage media such as magnetic tape do not have unique storage addresses that can be directly addressed. Instead, data must be stored and retrieved using a sequential or serial process. Data are recorded one after another in a predetermined sequence on a storage medium. Locating an individual item of data requires searching much of the recorded data on the tape until the desired item is located. SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY The primary storage (main memory) on most modern computers consists of microelectronic semiconductor memory circuits. Plug-in memory circuit boards containing 32 megabytes or more of memory chips can be added to your PC to increase its memory capacity. Specialized memory can help improve your computer’s performance. Examples include: †¢ External cache memory of 512 kilobytes to help your microprocessor work faster †¢ Video graphics accelerator cards with 16 megabytes of RAM are used for faster and clearer video performance †¢ Removable credit-card-size and smaller â€Å"flash memory† RAM cards provide several megabytes of erasable direct access storage for PDAs or hand-held PCs. Some of the major attractions of semiconductor memory are: †¢ Small size †¢ Fast speed †¢ Shock and temperature resistance One major disadvantage of most semiconductor memory is: †¢ Volatility – Uninterrupted electric power must be supplied or the contents of memory will be lost (except with  read only memory, which is permanent). There are two basic types of semiconductor memory: †¢ Random Access Memory (RAM) – these memory chips are the most widely used primary storage medium. Each memory position can be both read and written, so it is also called read/write memory. This is a volatile memory. †¢Ã‚  Read Only Memory (ROM) – Non-volatile random access memory chips are used for permanent storage. ROM can be read but not erased or overwritten. Instructions and programs in primary storage can be permanently â€Å"burned in†Ã‚  to the storage cells during manufacturing. This permanent software is also called firmware. Variations include PROM (programmable read only memory) and EPROM (erasable programmable read only memory), which can be permanently or temporarily programmed after manufacture. MAGNETIC DISK STORAGE These are the most common forms of secondary storage for modern computer systems. That’s because they provide fast access and high storage capacities at a reasonable cost. Characteristics of magnetic disks: †¢ Disk drives contain metal disks that are coated on both sides with an iron oxide recording material. †¢ Several disks are mounted together on a vertical shaft, which typically rotates the disks are speeds of 3,600 to 7,600 revolutions per minute (rpm) †¢ Access arms between the slightly separated disks to read and write data on concentric, circular tracks position electromagnetic read/write heads. †¢ Data are recorded on tracks in the form of tiny magnetized spots to form the binary digits of common computer codes. †¢ Thousands of bytes can be recorded on each track, and there are several hundred data tracks on each disk surface, which provides you with billions of storage positions for software and data. Types of Magnetic Disks There are several types of magnetic disk arrangements, including disk cartridges as well as fixed disk units. Removable disk devices are popular because they are transportable and can be used to store backup copies of your data off-line for convenience and security. Floppy Disks, or magnetic disks, consist of polyester film disks covered with an iron oxide compound. A single disk is mounted and rotates freely inside a protective flexible or hard plastic jacket, which has access openings to accommodate the read/write head of a disk drive unit. The 3-1/2-inch floppy disk, with capacities of 1.44 megabytes, is the most widely used version, with a newer Superdisk technology offering 120 megabytes of storage. Hard Disk Drives combine magnetic disks, access arms, and read/write heads into a sealed module. This allows higher speeds, greater data-recording densities,  and closer tolerances within a sealed, more stable environment. Fixed or removable disk cartridge versions are available. Capacities of hard drives range from several hundred megabytes to many gigabytes of storage. RAID Storage Disk arrays of interconnected microcomputer hard disk drives have replaced large-capacity mainframe disk drives to provide many gigabytes of online storage. Known as RAID (redundant arrays of independent disks), they combine from 6 to more than 100 small hard disk drives and their control microprocessors into a single unit. Advantages of RAID disks include: †¢ Provide large capacities with high access speeds since data is accessed in parallel over multiple paths from many disks. †¢ Provide fault tolerant capability, since their redundant design offers multiple copies of data on several disks. If one disk fails, data can be recovered from backup copies automatically stored on other disks. †¢ Storage area networks (SANs) are high-speed fibre channel local area networks that can interconnect many RAID units and share their combined capacity through network servers for many users. MAGNETIC TAPE STORAGE Magnetic Tape is still being used as a secondary storage medium in business applications. The read/write heads of magnetic tape drives record data in the form of magnetised spots on the iron oxide coating of the plastic tape. Magnetic tape devices include tape reels and cartridges in mainframes and midrange systems, and small cassettes or cartridges for PCs. These devices serve as slower, but lower cost, storage to supplement magnetic disks to meet massive data warehouse and other business storage requirements. Other major applications for magnetic tape include long-term archival storage and backup storage for PCs and other systems. OPTICAL DISK STORAGE Optical disk storage involves technology, which is based on using a laser to read tiny spots on a plastic disk. The disks are currently capable of storing billions of characters of information. †¢Ã‚  CD-ROM – A common type of optical disk used on microcomputers. They are used for read only storage. Storage is over 600 megabytes per disk. This is equivalent to over 400 1.44-megabyte floppy disks or 300,000 double-spaced pages of text. Data are recorded as microscopic pits in a spiral track, and are read using a laser device. Limitation: Recorded data cannot be erased †¢Ã‚  CD-R – (Compact disk recordable) is another optical disk technology. It enables computers with CD-R disk drive units to record their own data once on a CD, and then be able to read the data indefinitely. Limitation: Recorded data cannot be erased †¢Ã‚  CD-RW – (CD-rewritable) optical disk systems have now become available which record and erase data by using a laser to heat a microscopic point on the disk’s surface. In CD-RW versions using magneto-optical technology, a magnetic coil changes the spot’s reflective properties from one direction to another, thus recording a binary one to zero. A laser device can then read the binary codes on the disk by sensing the direction of reflected light. †¢Ã‚  DVD – (Digital Video Disk or Digital Versatile Disk) can hold from 3.0 to 8.5 gigabytes of multimedia data on each side of a compact disk. The large capacities and high- quality images and sound of DVD technology are expected to eventually replace CD-ROM and CD-RW technologies for data storage, and  promise to accelerate the use of DVD drives for multimedia products that can be used in both computers and home entertainment systems. †¢ DVD-ROM is beginning to replace magnetic tape videocassettes for movies and other multimedia products. †¢ DVD – RAM is being used for backup and archival storage data and multimedia files. Business Applications One of the major uses of optical disks in mainframe and midrange systems is in image processing, where longterm archival storage of historical files of document images must be maintained. Mainframe and midrange computer versions of optical disks use 12-inch plastic disks with capacities of several gigabytes, with up to 20 disks held in jukebox drive units. WORM – (Write Once, Read Many) versions of optical disks are used to store data on the disk. Although data can only be stored once, it can be read an infinite number of times. One of the major business uses of CD-ROM disks for personal computers is to provide a publishing medium for fast access to reference materials in a convenient, compact form. These include: †¢ Catalogs †¢ Directories †¢ Manuals †¢Ã‚  Periodical abstracts †¢Ã‚  Part listings †¢Ã‚  Statistical databases of business activity and economic activity Interactive multimedia applications in business, education, and entertainment using CD-ROM and DVD disks. Optical disks have become a popular storage medium for image processing and multimedia business applications and they appear to be a promising alternative to magnetic disks and tape for very large mass storage capabilities for enterprise computing systems. However, rewritable optical technologies are still being perfected. Also, most optical disk devices are significantly slower and more expensive (per byte of storage) than magnetic disk devices. So optical disk systems are not expected to displace magnetic disk technology in the near future for most business applications. IV. KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS – DEFINED Binary Representation: Pertaining to the presence or absence of electronic or magnetic â€Å"signals† in the computer’s circuitry or in the media it uses. There are only two possible states or conditions – presence or absence. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The unit of a computer system that includes the circuits that controls the interpretation and execution of instructions. In many computer systems, the CPU includes the arithmetic-logic unit, the control unit, and primary storage unit. Computer System: Computer hardware as a system of input, processing, output, storage, and control components. Thus a computer system consists of input and output devices, primary and secondary storage devices, the central processing unit, the control unit within the CPU, and other peripheral devices. Computer Terminal: Any input/output device connected by telecommunications links to a computer. Digital Cameras: Digital still cameras and digital video cameras enable you to shoot, store, and download still photos or full-motion video with audio in your PC. Direct Access: A method of storage where each storage position has a unique address and can be individually accessed in approximately the same period of time without having to search through other storage positions. Information Appliance: Devices for consumers to access the Internet. Laptop Computer: A small portable PC. Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD): Electronic visual displays that form characters by applying an electrical charge to selected silicon crystals. Magnetic Disk Storage: Data storage technology that uses magnetised spots on metal or plastic disks. Magnetic Disk Storage – Floppy Disk: Small phonograph record enclosed in a protective envelope. It is a widely used form of magnetic disk media that provides a direct access storage capability for microcomputer systems. Magnetic Disk Storage – Hard Disk Secondary storage medium; generally nonremovable disks made out of metal and covered with a magnetic  recording surface. It holds data in the form of magnetised spots. Magnetic Disk Storage – RAID Redundant array of independent disks. Magnetic disk units that house many interconnected microcomputer hard disk drives, thus providing large, fault tolerant storage capacities. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): The machine recognition of characters printed with magnetic ink. Primarily used for check processing by the banking industry. Magnetic Stripe: A magnetic stripe card is a plastic wallet-size card with a strip of magnetic tape on one surface; widely used for credit/debit cards. Magnetic Tape: A plastic tape with a magnetic surface on which data can be stored by selective magnetisation of portions of the surface. Mainframe Computer: A larger-size computer system, typically with a separate central processing unit, as distinguished from microcomputer and minicomputer systems. Microcomputer: A very small computer, ranging in size from a â€Å"Computer on a chip† to a small typewriter-size unit. Microprocessor: A semiconductor chip with circuitry for processing data. Midrange Computer: Larger and more powerful than most microcomputers but are smaller and less powerful than most large mainframe computer systems. Minicomputer: A small electronic general-purpose computer. Network Computer: A new category of microcomputer designed mainly for use with the Internet and Intranets on tasks requiring limited or specialised applications and no or minimal disk storage. Network Server: A type of midrange computer used to co-ordinate telecommunications and resource sharing and manages large web sites, Intranets, extranets, and client/server networks. Network Terminal: A terminal that depends on network servers for its software and processing power. Off-line: Pertaining to equipment or devices not under control of the central processing unit. Online: Pertaining to equipment or devices under control of the central processing unit. Optical Character Recognition (OCR): The machine identification of printed characters through the use of light-sensitive devices. Optical Disk Storage: Technology based on using a laser to read tiny spots on a plastic disk. The disks are currently capable of storing billions of characters of information. Optical Disk Storage – CD-ROM: An optical disk technology for microcomputers featuring compact disks with a storage capacity of over 500 megabytes. Optical Disk Storage – CD-R: Compact disk recordable (CD-R) enables computers with CD-R disk drive units to record their own data once on a CD, than be able to read the data indefinitely. Optical Disk Storage – CD-RW: Compact disk rewritable (CD-RW) enables computers with CD-RW disk drive units to record and erase data by using a laser to heat a microscopic point on the disk’s surface. Optical Disk Storage – DVD: Digital video disk or digital versatile disk (DVD) enables computers with DVD disk drive units to hold from 3.0 to 8.5 gigabytes of multimedia data on each side of a compact disk. Optical Disk Storage – WORM Disk: Optical disk that allows users to write once, read many times. Optical Scanning: Using a device (scanner) that scans characters or images and generates their digital representations. Pen-Based Computing: Tablet-style microcomputers that recognise hand-writing and hand-drawing done by a pen-shaped device on their pressure sensitive display screens. Peripheral Devices: In a computer system, any unit of equipment, distinct from the central processing unit, that provides the system with input, output, or storage capabilities. Personal Digital Assistant: Handheld microcomputer devices, which are designed for convenient mobile communications and computing. Pointing Devices: Devices, which allow end users to issue commands or make choices by moving a cursor on the display, screen. Pointing Device – Electronic Mouse: A small device that is electronically connected to a computer and is moved by hand on a flat surface in order to move the cursor on a video screen in the same direction. Buttons on the mouse allow users to issue commands and make  responses or selections. Pointing Device – Pointing Stick: A small buttonlike device sometimes likened to the eraser head of a pencil. The cursor moves in the direction of the pressure you place on the track point. Pointing Device – Touchpad: Is a small rectangular touch-sensitive surface usually placed below the keyboard. The cursor moves in the direction your finger moves on the pad. Pointing Device – Trackball: A roller device set in a case used to move the cursor on a computer’s display screen. Primary Storage: The main (or internal) memory of a computer. Usually in the form of semiconductor storage. Printers: Devices that produce hard copy output such as paper documents or reports. Secondary Storage: External or auxiliary storage device that supplements the primary storage of a computer. Semiconductor Memory: Microelectronic storage circuitry etched on tiny chips of silicon or other semiconducting material. Semiconductor Memory – RAM: Also known as main memory or primary storage; type of memory that temporarily holds data and instructions needed shortly by the CPU. RAM is a volatile type of storage. Semiconductor Memory – ROM: Also known as firmware; a memory chip that permanently stores instructions and data that are programmed during the chip’s manufacture. Three variations on the ROM chip are PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM. ROM is a nonvolatile form of storage. Sequential Access: A sequential method of storing and retrieving data from a file. Smart Cards: Cards such as debit and credit cards, which have an embedded microprocessor chip and several kilobytes of memory. Speech Recognition: Direct conversion of spoken data into electronic form suitable for entry into a computer system. Promises to be the easiest, most natural way to communicate with computers. Storage Capacity Elements: Units used for storage capacity and data: bits, bytes, kilobytes (KB), megabytes (MB), gigabytes (GB), terabytes (TB). Storage Capacity Elements – Bit: A contraction of â€Å"binary digit†. It can have the value of either 0 or 1. Storage Capacity Elements – Byte: A sequence of adjacent binary digits operated on as a unit and usually shorter than a computer word. In many computer systems, a byte is a grouping of eight bits that can represent one alphabetic or special character or can be â€Å"packed† with two decimal digits. Storage Capacity Elements – Kilobyte (K or KB): When referring to computer storage capacity it is equivalent to 2 to the 10th power, or 1,014 in decimal notation. Storage Capacity Elements – Megabyte (MB): One million bytes. More accurately, 2 to the 20th power, 1,048,576 in decimal notation. Storage Capacity Elements – Gigabyte (GB): One billion bytes. More accurately, 2 to the 30th power, or 1,073,741,824 in decimal notation. Storage Capacity Elements – Terabyte (TB): One trillion bytes. More accurately, 2 to the 40th power, or 1,009,511,627,776 in decimal notation. Storage Media Trade-offs: The trade-offs in cost, speed, and capacity of various storage media. Supercomputer: A special category of large computer systems that are the most powerful available. They are designed to solve massive computational problems. Time Elements: Units used for measuring processing speeds: milliseconds, microseconds, nanoseconds, and picoseconds. Time Elements – Millisecond: A thousandth of a second. Time Elements – Microsecond: A millionth of a second. Time Elements – Nanosecond: One billionth of a second. Time Elements – Picosecond: One trillionth of a second. Touch-Sensitive Screen: An input device that accepts data input by the placement of a finger on or close to the CRT screen. Transaction Terminals: Terminals used in banks, retail stores, factories, and other work sites that are used to capture transaction data at their point of origin. Examples are point-of-sale (POS) terminals and automated teller machines (ATMs). Video Output: Video displays are the most common type of computer output. Volatility: Memory (such as electronic semiconductor memory) that loses its contents when electrical power is interrupted. Wand: A handheld optical character recognition device used for data entry by many transaction terminals. Workstation: A computer terminal or micro- or minicomputer system designed to support the work of one person. Also, a highpowered computer to support the work of professionals in engineering, science, and other areas that require extensive computing power and graphics capabilities. V. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Do you agree with the statement: â€Å"The network is the computer†?   What trends are occurring in the development and use of the major types of computer systems? Do you think that network computers (NCs) will replace personal computers (PCs) in business applications? Are networks of PCs and servers making mainframe computers obsolete?   What  trends are occurring in the development and use of peripheral devices? Why are those trends occurring? When would you recommend the use of each of the following:   Network computers NetPCs Network terminals Information appliances in business applications What processor, memory, magnetic disk storage, and video display capabilities would you require for a personal computer that you would use for business purposes?   What other peripheral devices and capabilities would you want to have for your business PC?

Rational Rose Manual

Visualize with Rational Software Architect Create and transform a UML 2. 0 model into code Skill Level: Introductory Eric Long ([email  protected] ibm. com) Software Engineer IBM 21 Mar 2006 Rational Software Architect virtually teems with visual tools to handle a number of development tasks. Of most interest to developers are UML modeling, design patterns, and UML-to-code transformations. After completing this tutorial, you will know how to create a UML model, apply a design pattern to that model, and, finally, transform the abstract model into actual code. Section 1. Before you startRational ® Software Architect provides developers, architects, and analysts visual tools for a wide variety of software development tasks. This tutorial introduces a few of these powerful visual tools: UML modeling, design patterns, and UML transformations. About this tutorial Learn how to create, edit, and analyze UML models using Rational Software Architect. This tutorial demonstrates the followin g Rational Software Architect capabilities: †¢ UML modeling Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 1 of 22 developerWorks ® ibm. com/developerWorks Design patterns †¢ UML transformations This tutorial is intended for software developers, architects, and analysts interested in learning about Rational Software Architect's visual modeling capabilities. If you want to learn how to transform high-level UML models into actual code without even knowing a particular programming language, this tutorial is for you. Objectives After completing this tutorial, you will know how to use Rational Software Architect to create UML projects and models, apply design patterns to those models (new or existing), and transform UML models into source code or into a different type of model.Prerequisites This tutorial assumes that you have some knowledge of Javaâ„ ¢ programming, and design patterns. Knowledge of UML m odels is helpful, but not required. System requirements To run the examples in this tutorial, install Rational Software Architect. If you don't have a copy of Rational Software Architect, download a free trial version. All of the prerequisites for Rational Software Architect are located in the Resources section of this tutorial. Section 2. Create a UML modeling project To get started, you need to do some initial set up. First, create a UML project and model. StepsCreating a UML modeling project is very easy: Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 2 of 22 ibm. com/developerWorks developerWorks ® 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Open Rational Software Architect. Open the Modeling perspective by selecting Open Perspective > Modeling from the Window menu. Make sure all of your open projects are closed. Select New > Project†¦ from the File menu. Ensure the Show All Wizards box is checked. Expand the Modeling folder. Select UML Project. Figure 1. The New Project window 8. 9. Click Next.Name your project DWorksPatternProject. Figure 2. UML Modeling Project window Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 3 of 22 developerWorks ® ibm. com/developerWorks 10. Click Next. 11. Fill in the Create a UML project wizard as follows: †¢ Select UML Modeling for the File types. †¢ Select Blank Model for the Templates. †¢ Enter PatternModel for the File name. †¢ Leave the remaining defaults. The wizard should look like this: Figure 3. Create UML Model window Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006.All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 4 of 22 ibm. com/developerWorks developerWorks ® 12. Click Finish. 13. The Model Explorer view contains your UML Project, DWorksDesignPattern and your blank UML model, PatternModel. emx. Figure 4. Current Model Explorer view Visualize with Rati onal Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 5 of 22 developerWorks ® ibm. com/developerWorks See, wasn't that easy? Now, on to the more exciting part of the tutorial. Let's build the model using RSA's user-friendly visual tools. Section 3. Model a design patternNow it's time to select a design pattern, apply that design pattern to a model, observe all relationships of the pattern, and add attributes and operations to the model. Design patterns in RSA Rational Software Architect comes packaged with support for all of the Gang of Four design patterns. You also have the ability to import and create your own design patterns. Select a design pattern 1. 2. Select Show View > Other†¦ from the Window menu. Expand the Modeling folder and select Pattern Explorer. Figure 5. Select Pattern Explorer Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006.All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 6 of 22 ibm. com/devel operWorks developerWorks ® 3. 4. 5. Click OK. In the Pattern Explorer view, expand Design Patterns > Behavioral. Select the Observer pattern. Figure 6. The Observer Design Pattern Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 7 of 22 developerWorks ® ibm. com/developerWorks 6. 7. 8. To learn about the pattern, toggle between the Overview and Short Description tabs at the bottom of the Pattern Explorer view. In the Pattern Explorer view, drag-and-drop Observer onto DesignPattern's blank diagram.The editor should contain an instance of the Observer Design Pattern that looks like this: Figure 7. Observer Pattern Instance Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 8 of 22 ibm. com/developerWorks developerWorks ® Apply a design pattern 1. In DesignPattern's editor, hover over ConcreteObserver and select Enter argument name/value†¦. Fi gure 8. Enter argument 2. Name the parameter Shopper, then press Enter. The Observer instance now has a concrete observer named Shopper. Let's add a parameter using a different approach.From the Palette (right of diagram), click to expand the Class Diagram section. Figure 9. Palette 3. Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 9 of 22 developerWorks ® ibm. com/developerWorks 4. 5. 6. Select Class and click anywhere in the diagram (do not click on the Observer instance). Name the newly created class Order and press Enter. Drag-and-drop Order onto ConcreteSubject in the Observer instance. Figure 10. Drag-and-drop ConcreteSubject Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006.All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 10 of 22 ibm. com/developerWorks developerWorks ® 7. Your diagram should look similar to this (you might not see all of the relationships†¦ you'll fix that in the next section). Figure 11. Observer instance Observe the design pattern relationships 1. Right-click on any element in the DesignPattern diagram. Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 11 of 22 developerWorks ® ibm. com/developerWorks 2. Select Filters > Show Related Elements†¦ from the context menu.Figure 12. Show relationships 3. Select Show All Relationships from the Custom Query list. Figure 13. Show/Hide Relationships Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 12 of 22 ibm. com/developerWorks developerWorks ® Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 13 of 22 developerWorks ® ibm. com/developerWorks 4. 5. Click OK You can see all of the elements and relationships represented in this model: Figure 14. Observer pattern 6.Now you are ready to add some elements to your blank Observer design pattern model. Add methods and attributes to a model Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 14 of 22 ibm. com/developerWorks developerWorks ® 1. 2. In the PatternModel editor, right-click the Order concrete subject. Select Add UML > attribute. Figure 15. Add attribute 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Type -orderNum : String (the â€Å"-† makes the attribute private). Press Enter. Repeat the same steps on Shopper, but name the attribute -custID : String.In the PatternModel editor, right-click the Shopper concrete subject. Select Add UML > operation. Type +makeOrder() (the â€Å"+† makes the operation public). PatternModel's editor should now look like this: Figure 16. Observer pattern Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 15 of 22 developerWorks ® ibm. com/developerWorks Good work ! You have completed your model (a very simple model) and can use Rational Software Architect's tools to transform this model into actual code. Section 4. Transform your model into Java codeNow that you have a completed model within your UML project, you are going to transform that model to actual code. Rational Software Architect supports the Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 16 of 22 ibm. com/developerWorks developerWorks ® following model-to-code transformations out of the box: †¢ UML -> Java †¢ UML -> EJB †¢ UML -> XSD †¢ UML -> CORBA †¢ UML -> C++ However, if you would like more options, there are built-in tools and wizards that let you create custom transformations in Rational Software Architect.You are going to transform your existing model into Java. Transform a UML model to Java code 1. In the Model Explorer view, expand DWorksPatternProject. Figure 17. Expanded pro ject 2. 3. In the Model Explorer view, select both Order and Shopper. Right-click on either of the selected objects and select Transform > Run Transformation > UML – Java. Figure 18. Run transformation Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 17 of 22 developerWorks ® ibm. com/developerWorks 4.In the Run this Transformation window, click Create new Target Container†¦. Figure 19. Transformation window Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 18 of 22 ibm. com/developerWorks developerWorks ® 5. In the New Java Project window, name the project DWorksTransformedJava. Figure 20. New Java project Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 19 of 22 developerWorks ® ibm. com/developerWorks 6. 7. Click Finish.Now that you are back in the Run this Trans formation window, click Run. RSA transforms the model into Java source code. The Model Explorer view should contain this Java project: Figure 21. Transformed Java project 8. Double-click Order. java to see the transformed code. The code should look like this: Figure 22. Transformed Order class Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 20 of 22 ibm. com/developerWorks developerWorks ® Try running a different transformation from UML-to-C++ and explore the results. Section 5. Conclusion Congratulations!In this tutorial, you covered the creation of a UML project and model, selecting and applying a design pattern to a model, adding and editing attributes and operations to a model, and transforming that model into actual code. You did all of this without even writing a line of code! It is easy to see (even with this simple tutorial) how visual UML modeling tools simplify code development. At this point, you might want to explore some of the links in the Resources section of this tutorial. Visualize with Rational Software Architect  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 21 of 22 developerWorks ® ibm. om/developerWorks Resources Learn †¢ Visit the developerWorks Rational zone to expand your Rational skills. †¢ â€Å"Exposing Design flaws in your code: Part 1†³ (developerWorks, August 2005) details the visual tools available to run internal code reviews in Rational Software Architect. †¢ † Visualize with Rational Application Developer† (developerWorks, February 2006) details the visualization capabilities of Rational Application Developer. †¢ â€Å"Discover IBM Rational visual tools for application development† (developerWorks, February 2006) covers all of the different visual tools available in the Rational Software Development Platform. Stay current with developerWorks technical events and webcasts. Get product s and technologies †¢ Download a free trial version of Rational Software Architect. †¢ Build your next development project with IBM trial software, available for download directly from developerWorks. Discuss †¢ Participate in developerWorks blogs and get involved in the developerWorks community. About the author Eric Long Eric Long is a Software Engineer in the IBM Developer Skills Program. Eric graduated from The University of Texas with a degree in Computer Science.He joined IBM in July of 2004 and currently works in Austin, Texas. As a Software Engineer, he provides technical information to developers on open source and industry trends and technologies through speaking engagements, web content, and faculty consultations at IBM Academic Initiative member universities. His work also includes technical courses, demos, articles, and tutorials available at http://www. ibm. com/university and http://www. ibm. com/developerworks. Visualize with Rational Software Architec t  © Copyright IBM Corporation 2006. All rights reserved. Trademarks Page 22 of 22

Cancer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 5

Cancer - Essay Example There are many different types of cancers originating in the human body owing to the different types of cells in the body. A few examples of cancers are skin cancer, lung cancer, prostate cancer and breast cancer. Cancer is an abnormal multiplication of the cells which may originate in any cell of the human body owing to the lack regulatory processes and this pathological state can be treated by different treatment modalities (Kumar et al 2005). Under the microscope, cancer cells reveal different structural characteristics because of which they can be differentiated from the normal cells of the body. They are pleomorphic in nature, which means that they have a tendency to have a variable size and shape which is not in accordance with the normal cells. The cancer cells have different size and different shapes. Most of the cancer cells have large nuclei in comparison to the surrounding normal tissue cells and the nuclei of the cancerous cells contain abnormal number of chromosomes, a condition known as aneuploidy. The aneuploidy may occur due to a mutation or deletion of a chromosome. The cell membrane of the cancer cells produces surface enzymes which have the ability to damage the basement membrane of tissues. This characteristic assists in the spread of the cancer from its site of origin to the surrounding non-cancerous cells and damages them as well. The cancer cells show increased rate of mitosis. Mitosis is the process of the reproduction of the new cells and hence the cancer increases in its size and crosses its boundaries to spread out of its confines. The cancer cells have differences in metabolism in comparison to normal cells. Their metabolism is more anaerobic and therefore they may even combat hypoxic conditions. The cancer cells have the propensity to spread from the primary cancer site from where the tumor begins to grow to the adjacent normal tissues. This phenomenon is

Summarize Queen Magdas journey Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Summarize Queen Magdas journey - Coursework Example On hearing the message stating her wish to depart, Solomon pleaded with her to stay so that he could show her how his government works and the state of his soldiers and dignitaries. Queen Magda complied after hearing all she had missed and attended King Solomon’s supper and she sat behind him as he had stated that she will linger behind him. Solomon ordered his servant to serve a repast for Queen Magda with the intention of making her thirsty. Solomon approached Queen Magda and begged her to reside with her in his quarters. The Queen made him make a vow that he would not touch her and she promised she would not touch anything that belonged to Solomon. Later in the night, she became very thirsty and she opted to take the water present in Solomon’s room. Solomon caught her and reminded her of their vow and she opted to break the vow for the water in the vase. They slept together and Solomon had a vision about the sun moving from Israel to Ethiopia. After her encounter, Ma gda sought to return to Ethiopia and Solomon gave her treasures and other precious things. He gave her his ring and told her to keep it as his token of love, and in the event that she bore a child, the ring would be a sign of his recognition. The Quincy Mayans Myth stated that the gods had sought to create humans who would come as a source of nourishment and sustain them in the light of the day. Later, humans and God's relations became poor and the humans fell out of favor with the gods for their lack of worship to the gods.

SOCIETY, IMMIGRATION in United States Movie Review

SOCIETY, IMMIGRATION in United States - Movie Review Example The film introduces Sam’s wife, Eva, and then his son Jules and then gradually the whole family. There arise problems for the family as time passes by. Sam and his brothers later get to start their own business selling televisions. The business is a profitable one and lets the businessmen make good money. Television is the newest fad in the market then. The shift from person to person storytelling and newspapers to television marks the transformation in the American society which of course affects the Krichinsky family too. The Jewish family had migrated from Europe and brought with them their old and inherited values and morals without knowing that soon the very things they consider more or less sacred to themselves will be challenged by the American life style. The consumerism of the American family is pictured differently in Avalon as it discusses the early period of development in technology which gave way to the inventions of the television. The emphasis is laid on the fact that the presence of a television set in every American household has caused a serious change in family life, social life and the youth of the country. The family business profits from the television business but it brings with it problems for the Kirchinsky family. The societies are different. The one from which Sam has migrated and the one to which he has willingly migrated. The American dream of prosperity, freedom, justice and equality is beautiful enough to attract people from thousands of miles to the land of opportunity but it does not promise a healthy social and more specifically family life. The Kirchinsky family undergoes several hardships in the new country and finds itself in problems related to the joint family systems. The cultural clash between the Kirchinsky and the Americans signifies the differences between the two when it comes to morals, tolerance and values. The family experiences disagreements, fights and politics when Sam’s wife refuses to

Advantages and Disadvantages to Kraft Foods Case Study

Advantages and Disadvantages to Kraft Foods - Case Study Example Therefore, if Kraft Foods starts producing healthier products, it will establish positive relationships with different stakeholders. The move will also depict that the company is committed to corporate social responsibility (Lussier 2008, p. 223). On the other hand, the company is likely to lose some of its customers because the new versions of chocolate will have a different taste. Notably, the esteemed customers of the company have been consuming its products because of their unique taste. However, lowering the calorific value of the chocolate versions will alter the product taste. Many customers may not like the new taste. The company will also incur new costs in production. Worth noting is the fact that the company will need to source ingredients that will be used in the production of lower-calorie chocolates. In addition, the company will need to spend on advertising and promotion strategies in order to introduce the new versions into the market. In my opinion, the UK government is likely to introduce legislation that will require taxation of high-fat food products like chocolate. Since the government has experienced the financial burden resulting from medical costs associated with the high morbidity cases resulting from obesity, it is likely to take new measures. The government is also concerned about the health of children and adolescents who are more affected by high-fat food products such as chocolate bars. Therefore, there are higher chances that the government will intervene (Lussier 2008, p. 223). Denmark repealed its fat-tax law after the realization that it contributed to increased consumer prices for the high-fat products. The tax did not motivate companies to produce healthier products. On the contrary, the tax law increased consumer prices, and the consumers had to bear the financial burden.

Operations And Supply Chain Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Operations And Supply Chain Management - Essay Example Sydney is one of the most famous metropolitan, multi-ethnic, and cosmopolitan cities in Australia that comes under the location in the southeast portion of Australia. Moreover, it is considered one of the largest cities in Australia with a population of more than four million residents, which has also been popular for being a vivacious, dynamic, and lively city. It is a very diverse city with respect to its population where people of Australian, English, Scottish, Irish, and Chinese heritage are the usual inhabitants. Moreover, people from various other countries such as United Kingdom, Italy, New Zealand, Philippines and few other are also migrated and live as the natives of Sydney.The topography of Sydney, Australia reveals the truth that locality comes under the surrounding by several national parks, coastal regions that incorporate rivers, bays, and beaches. Furthermore, it has also involved itself in sports activities and events and hosted quite a few out of them. The climatic c onditions of Sydney demonstrate the fact that it usually has a moderate and self-controlled climate with warm summers and mild winters; however, the city experiences the rainfall all over the year (Robinson & Bachman, 2000).One of the leading and vital reasons to open up the chain of hypermarket in Sydney is due to the reason that it has come under-recognition in the world rankings for its economic innovations. Moreover, Sydney contributes a huge proportion of the total GDP of the country. According to the statistics, Sydney has also gained the reputation as a worldwide center for commerce, arts, culture, music, and quite a few other aspects. Sydney has become a hub for the multinational corporations and top organizations including banks and shopping malls. Moreover, Sydney has become a place with major worldwide brand name labels (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2000). Therefore, it can come to the conclusion that the cream of the crop people is mainly the residents of Sydney. According to the information and facts of Sydney, it is significantly one of the most expensive cities in the world with a very high cost of living. However, this is one of the crucial reasons

Selective Lit Review Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Selective Lit Review - Assignment Example Continually, organizations are recognizing that their employees are a base for competitive advantage. As a result, HR departments are changing from being administrative, to become strategic partners – answerable to the achievement of business goals. This approach requires the development of new evaluation and defining models for the success of their HR. Through such models, they will be able to demonstrate the value of their strategic contribution. This review will discuss different errors in the current models of evaluation (Cousins, Donohue and Bloom, 1996). Cousins, Donohue and Bloom (1996) insist that despite developments in participatory and collaborative evaluation, little has been explored, over the perception of the evaluators, with regards to evaluation practices and their practicality. This was be explored using a survey of American and Canadian evaluators – in the area of their perceptions. From the 564 evaluators surveyed, a subsample of 348, apart from expressing their opinions over collaborative evaluation, they described collaborative evaluation projects they had participated in. From the survey of the 564 evaluators, over their views of evaluation, it was evident that they support a utilization-focused, service orientation to the function, and that the evaluator holds the responsibility of maximizing proposed use among the users. The practices of evaluators, show that most of them engage collaboratively – which is not intended to support either side of the professional discussion, but add to the knowledge-bas e on evaluation. Holton (1996) the lack of further study to advance the theory of evaluation is a primary deficiency for HRD (human resource development). In this regard, the four-level model of training evaluation is a classification of results, and erratic as a model of evaluation.

Politicians and religious leaders Essay Example for Free

Politicians and religious leaders Essay What is courage and how do people define it? A lot of people have their own definitions of courage and a lot of them see it in many different ways. According to Webster’s dictionary courage implies firmness of mind and will in the face of danger or extreme difficulty (â€Å"Courage†). But in my own opinion having courage takes a lot of self confidence and audaciousness to be able to face one thing or do something that is very challenging and difficult. A lot of people define courage in lots of various ways. For other people such as soldiers, it may mean like fighting on a battle and facing all their enemies without any feeling of fear or hesitation to be able to serve their country and other people; willing to sacrifice their lives for the good of mankind and benefit of their country. In many circumstances, each and every individual in the world has courage. Different types of courage can be seen in their actions, words, works and other aspects of every human’s life. There are different kinds of courage and it depends on how an individual wants to illustrate it. There are physical types of courage and moral ones. Physical courage could pertain to facing or dealing with something that has something to do with being valiant and not feeling afraid of getting physically hurt and willing to face any kind of danger that can cause an individual to suffer physically or even face death. On the other hand moral courage is related to becoming brave and the act of doing something that is deemed to be right. It shows the readiness of an individual to demonstrate the right act despite of different consequences such as being put into shame or scandal. Two different kind of courageousness yet they both share only one thought and meaning, which is being fearless and ready to face anything whatever consequence it may lead one person (Welsh). People manifest the act of courage everyday as they live their life. From infants to adults, courage is always present and can be observed to each and every individual on earth. For instance, a one year old child should have courage to be able to learn to walk, children needs courage to go to their first day of school and meet new people, teachers, classmates and friends, even an adult should have courage to apply for a job and start working on a company. Another example is a man who loves a woman should have courage to tell her what he feels to achieve what he wants and he should also be ready for whatever consequence it may lead him, like knowing that the girl loves him too or it could be the other way around. Courageousness is the one who pushes somebody to do something no matter what outcome may be. Furthermore, sick people such as those who have serious illness who wants to live longer should have a lot of courage to fight for their lives and survive to be able to live longer. Politicians and religious leaders are also a good example of people who demonstrates courage. As for politicians, they have the courage to lead people and do their best to make things in order while religious leaders teaches people lessons in life and encourage people to do good and to be closer to God. They serve people and they are brave enough to do their tasks no matter what consequence they may get and experience out of their courageous act such as false accusations, mockery and scandals. Simple things in life require courage in order for somebody to do and face it. The true meaning of courage can be seen in every individual’s heart. Being brave is to stand up for what one person believes and act on it. It is something that can be seen in every human being. Courage may sound a very simple word but it has a great meaning and value to every person in the world. Without courage the world would be chaotic and the world will not be a better world. Works Cited Courage. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2009. Merriam-Webster Online. 2 April 2009 http://www. merriam-webster. com/dictionary/courage Welsh, Bill. Definition of Courage. 116acw. acc. af. mil. 14 September 2006. 2 April 2009 http://www. 116acw. acc. af. mil/news/story. asp? id=123027106

Monsato Company †A Question in Agricultural Ethics Essay Example for Free

Monsato Company – A Question in Agricultural Ethics Essay Monsato Company is a Missouri-based company founded in 1901 by John F. Queeny and his wife Olga Monsato producing saccharine. In the mid-1940s, Monsato Co. began developing agricultural chemicals and throughout the 1960s and 1970s, herbicides were developed and introduced to the farmers. In 1981, a research group was established and the business’s primary focus was molecular biotechnology. In 1982, Monsato Co. bought Jacob Hartz Seed Co., a company known in the Midwest for its soybeen seeds. Also in 1982, scientists working for Monsato Co. produced the first genetically modified plant. In 1996, RoundUp Ready Soybeans were introduced possessing an in-seed herbicide. Several other in-seed herbicides are introduced in 1997 by Monsato Co. such as RoundUp Ready Cotton and RoundUp Ready Canola. Also introduced is an in-seed insect protection called YieldGard Corn Borer. In 1998, Monsato Co. combines the technology of in-seed herbicides with their in-seed insecticides into one product for its corn seed. In 2002, Monsato Co. identifies corn hybrids, which yield more ethanol per bushel than normal corn. Later this same year, they also identify a similar hybrid in their soybeans, which will produce more oil than a normal soybean. In 2004, Monsato Co. creates American Seeds, Inc (ASI) to support regional seed business with capital, genetics, and technology investments. In 2005, Monsato Co. acquires four companies Fontanelle Hybrids, based in Fontanelle, Neb, Stewart Seeds, based in Greensburg, Ind., Trelay Seeds, based in Livingston, Wis., and Stone Seeds, based in Pleasant Plains, Ill. In 2006, they acquire several other local seed companies, some family-owned, including Diener Seeds, Sieben Hybrids, Kruger Seed Company, Trisler Seed Farms, Gold Country Seed, Inc., Heritage Seeds and Campbell Seed. Over the next several years, they also acquire other local and regional companies and continue their research and development of genetically altered seeds. Over the course of a few decades, Monsato Co. has gone from a small company making saccharine to a Midwest agricultural giant manufacturing genetically altered seed. 1 A Possible Solution: Deregulation Although the idea of producing more crops with less cost, such as additional chemicals, pesticides, and herbicides may sound, the fact remains that Monsato Co. is not only toying with nature, they are also putting smaller family-owned companies out of business. In the past several years, organic foods have become more popular. Consumers want to feed their families healthy food, not food filled with chemicals. In 2005, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) decided to back Monsato and other biotech companies by supporting the deregulation of genetically engineered (GE) alfalfa. This would mean that the GE companies would have no restrictions on their technology and its use.2 Deregulation has its obvious problems. Organic crop company leaders, such as Stonyfield, Whole Foods, and OrganicValley believe that GE crops use a higher amount of toxins, herbicides, and water. Also the claims of higher crop yield will not be met and the price of this seed will be too costly for the average farmer. There is also the potential of cross-contamination of crops where a farmer using GE seed spreads the toxins to his organic neighbor through groundwater. This could lead to the organic farmer’s crops getting contaminated and his losing his license to sell organic products. Stonyfield and other organic companies opposed this ruling and in 2010 it went to the Supreme Court. The decision was that deregulation could not take place without the USDA making an environmental assessment of the genetically enhanced seeds used, and an injunction was put in place preventing the planting of GE alfalfa seeds. David and Goliath Biotech companies lobbied heavily in Washington. However, the smaller organic supporters caught the ear of the USDA and as a result persuaded them to conduct a meeting of the minds of both sides. The problem was clear – there was an incredible amount of support, political and financial, in favor of GE alfalfa. The result was that the UDSA would allow deregulation. The organic companies and farmers were faced with the fact that GE alfalfa was here to stay. What was left to fight over was whether it would be complete deregulation or one with restrictions. In their opinion, it was better to have some measure of control than no control at all, so the organic community stayed and fought. They brought to the table demands for reassurance that â€Å"(a) organic farmers whose crops become contaminated by GE alfalfa must be compensated by the patent holders for their losses due to losing their organic certification and (b) the USDA must oversee all testing and monitoring of GE crops t o ensure compliance as part of its role in protecting all US agriculture.† 3 The organic community won that portion of the battle. Conclusion The organic community may have won that battle, but they lost the war. Chemical companies and genetically engineered seed are a mainstay in today’s agriculture. Along with that they bring with them the potential for contaminated soil and damaged and lost crops of the small, everyday farmer. These farmers and family-owned businesses are being swallowed up on a regular basis. As the world’s population grows so does the demand for an ever increasing need of better, more enhanced, products. Technology provides us with the knowledge and growth for these, but in its wake leaves behind the things that matter very much to clean air, clean soil, fresh water and â€Å"pure† food. References 1) Monsato. (2010). Monsato. Retrieved from http://www.monsanto.com 2) Pearson, C. (2010, March). The Most Unethical Company is also Best Corporate Citizen. Cause Integration http://www.causeintegration.com/2010/ the-most-unethical-companyis-a-best-corporate-citizen-what-gives/ 3) Hirshberg, G. (2011, January). Speaking with One Voice to Stop Monsato and Biotech. Huffington Post, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/gary-hirshberg/speaking-with-one-voice-t_b_816447.html

An Online Utility Bill Payment System

An Online Utility Bill Payment System Abstract With the growing number of people who are been increasing pressured for time, online utility bill payment has become a graceful solution for the consumers with busy life styles. Through online payment of utility bills, consumers are able to save time, hassle and therefore make their lives much easier. Although online utility bill payment has become one of the fastest growing trends in the world particularly in the US, in the Sri Lanka however, the progress of households adopting to online utility bill payments is rather slothful. Thus, the primary objective of this study is to analyse the factors influencing the consumers intention to adopt an utility bill payment system in Sri Lanka alongside with the secondary objectives of identifying the awareness level on online bill payments systems, examining the most preferred utility bill payment options and models, and the degree of acceptance of online utility bill payment systems by the consumers and finally to analyse the future prospect with regards to online utility bill payments. Hence a survey was conducted among 50 physicians from four major hospitals in the Colombo city. According to the result obtained from this research, it was revealed that although in general all the respondents were somewhat aware about online utility bill payment systems, the younger respondents acquired a better knowledge about online utility bill payments than respondents from older age categories. Furthermore, all the respondents positively reacted and stated that it is important for all the utility companies to mark their online presence thus allow customers to conduct online transactions as it would be more convenience. Moreover, factors categorised under perceived risks and perceived benefits were found to have a considerable force on the consumers intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system. Other factors such as services and features offered by companies, individuals computer knowledge and skill, and usage of credit and debit cards were also identified and are di scussed in this research. Key Words: Online utility bill Payment system; Credit card usage; e-commerce; adoption; User intention. Chapter 1 Introduction Today the improvement of e-commerce has led to the derivation of various internet based activities. For e.g. companies are able to conduct their business activities at all hours, reaching customers in all parts of the world thus expand their customer base without geographically being limited. Whereas in customers perspective, e-commerce provides a platform on which they can easily carry out the necessary transactions at their convenience. Hence even the companies which provide utility services are boldly revolutionizing their industry thus adopting internet for e-commerce purposes (Buccigross, 2000). This allows customers to make their utility bill payments directly through utility companies websites or through a third party website such as banks, financial institutions and aggregators. Online utility bill payment is when the customer makes his or her payment transactions online for the utility services obtained from a particular company. By paying utility bills via online, consumers have the benefits of avoiding crowds, queuing, parking problems, and cutting their travelling costs and time (Ramayah et al, 2005). Hence consumers could simply get their utility bills paid with just a click of their mouse. In Sri Lanka, the payment system of utility bills is rather different to the systems established in other countries. The utility bills usually arrive by post thus the consumers must visit the payment office in order to settle the payments. As mentioned earlier, this process is usually accompanied by queuing, parking problems, and limited payment options. For example, the CEB NWS DB only accepts payments made by cash or cheques at their payment counters. These issues can be considered as a hassle for people whose jobs are of hectic and stressful nature. Many utility companies in Sri Lanka have identified this problem thus have implemented various types of payment systems in order to provide their consumers with a wider choice when it comes to their payments (refer appendix A). Online utility bill payment is one of the elite choices of payment systems that have been implemented in the contemporary world. Problem Statement What are the factors shaping and influencing an individuals intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system? Problem Justification There is a lack of understanding as to what is really happening in the local context with regards to the adoption of new technological services related to the internet. Hence there are hardly any researches that have been carried out in order to understand the consumers view point with regards to online utility bill payment systems that have been implemented. Therefore the knowledge about consumers behaviour related to this area of study is vital for utility companies and other vendors operating in similar businesses in order to estimate the potential market available hence utilize the internet as a tool of opportunity for those companies to grow and expand their market. The study will also be essential for government utility companies (e.g. CEB) since they have not yet implemented the service of allowing the customers to pay their utility bills directly through the companies websites. The information originated from this research will enable both the government and private utility companies to identify the significance of the factors influencing the consumers intention to adopt online utility bill payment systems thus develop strategies to further enhance their business activities. Objectives of the Study To determine awareness level about online utility bill payment systems by consumers. To analyse the factors influencing the consumers intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system. To find out the most accepted online utility bill payment options and the preferred bill payment modes by consumers. To analyse the degree of acceptance of an online utility bill payment system by consumers. To examine the impending future prospect of online utility bill payment systems in Sri Lanka. Significance of the Study This study will mainly facilitate the utility companies and other vendors in Sri Lanka to identify the factors influencing the consumers intention to adopt online utility bill payment systems, in this case physicians who are residing in Colombo, a highly skilled and a valued population in the country. Therefore by understanding such factors, companies will be able to eliminate the uncertainty levels and have a clear view about the potential market for online utility bill payment in Sri Lanka. This study will further help the utility companies develop enhanced strategies regarding the payment options that are being made available to their clients. Awareness about online utility bill payment will allow consumers to acclimatize to these new technologies thus exploit the advantages of the internet. The information and data that have been collected in this study will aid the future researchers conducting researches related to consumers intention to adopt online bill payment systems in general. Scope of the Study This study was carried out to empirically investigate the factors affecting the consumers intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system. However, the survey sample of the study consisted only of physicians working in four (4) private hospitals situated within the Colombo city limits. Furthermore, the physicians were from various backgrounds thus to achieve results that are more realistic and to better signify the people that pay utility bills, the sample have to be more diversified in terms of age and geographical location (He Mykytyn, 2007), preferably homeowners who are responsible for their respective household bill payments. Chapter 2 Literature Review Online Utility Bill Payment Online utility bill payment is when the consumer makes his/her payments for the utility service(s) obtained with the use of the internet. The types of utility services are illustrated in the table below. Today, the consumers trend in making utility bill payments is increasing particularly in the developed nations Brant (2008). In the Sri Lankan context however, although the country illustrates a steady growth in terms of internet usage especially from the users in the urban areas (Sathrasinghe, 2004), this has not been escorted by a similar growth in the number of consumers making online utility bill payments. In fact according to the Central Bank of Sri Lanka (2008), the overall transactions made by consumers over the internet illustrated a declining trend. Online Utility Bill Payment Models Options There are various payment models and payment options available to the customers when it comes to paying online utility bills unlike in the traditional (or offline) method of bill payment where the customer is limited to pay by either in cash, cheque, or electronic payment at a given payment centre. There are two types of online utility bill payment models, namely direct model and indirect model. The following table describe further details on these two models. Indirect Model (Third Party) Consumers pay any biller through a third party website such as a bank or portal, or by using software that interacts with the payers bank (Flynn Bowes, 2005) Automatic Bill Settlement by American Express (American Express, 2010) HSBC Easy Bill Settlement for Utility Bills (Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, 2010) With the evolution of payment options from barter to commodity-based, to currency and coin, to card-based and, more recently, to electronic network-based systems (Mantel, 2000), modern consumers have a wider choice when it comes to paying their utility bills via online. The table 3 below illustrates various online payment options available for consumers. Table 3 Online Payment Options Online Payment Options Definition Examples (Sri Lanka) Virtual Credit cards A disposable payment card that can be used to make purchases or payments over the internet (Economy Watch, 2010). Sampath Web card (Sampath Bank, 2010) E-cheques An electronic representation of a paper cheque (Acosta, 2008). e-cheques by Union Bank (New Sri Lanka, 2009) Smart cheques by Standard charted (Standard Chartered Bank, 2008) E-Wallets A software that has been installed on the consumers desktop which automatically fills payment forms (Acosta, 2008). Sampath e-wallet (Sampath Bank, 2010) Credit Cards (VISA, MasterCard American Express) The money for purchases or payments is credited directly to the consumers bank account, allowing consumer to pay later. HSBC credit cards (Premier, Platinum, Gold, Classic) (Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, 2010) Debit Cards The money for purchases or payments is deducted directly from the consumers checking account. HSBC VISA Debit card (Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, 2010) Sampath Bank Debit card (Sampath Bank, 2010) Online bank accounts Allows users to manage their bill payments through online banking Personal banking by HSBC (Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, 2010) Payeasy by Sampath Bank (Sampath Bank, 2010) Combank Online by Commercial Bank (Commercial Bank, 2010) Literate Review on Dependent Variable Given the fact that online bill payment is one of the fastest growing consumer activities on the internet that has being accepted by the business world today (McCormick, 2005), a few published empirical studies have specifically addressed the underlying factors that could materially affect customers adoption of an online utility bill payment system (He Mykytyn, 2007). Cheung et al (2003) have stated that theories such as the TRA, the TPB and the TAM are the most dominant theories that are been used to test studies related to the online consumer behaviour. Hence out of the three theories, TAM is considered as a suitable theory to analyse the factors influencing the physicians intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system (Taylor and Todd, 1995 cited Karami, 2006). (Please refer Appendix B for further details on the theories). Literature Review on Independent Variables In order to address the problem in this study, the following independent variables were selected as suggested by many previous studies. Perceived Characteristics Perceived risk Previous findings on the impact of perceived risk on consumer behaviour have suggested that the consumers consider adopting online payment methods more risky than tradition offline methods (Palvou 2003 and Koufaris et al 2002 cited He Mykytyn, 2007). In the Sri Lankan context, the risk of online utility bill payment is relative moderate. This is complemented by the fact that there are many banking services providing secure methods for the online financial transactions. However, according to the central banks statistics (2008), the total volume of transactions decreased by 5.7%. This indicates that there is a tendency that Sri Lankan consumers are concerned about the perceived risk associated with online payments in terms of security, trust and privacy. Perceived benefits the intention of online utility bill payment can be explained by the two components of TAM; PU and PEOU. Hence according to these components, when physicians consider online utility bill payments is more useful in terms of time saving, convenience and service reliability, and it is easy to use, they should be more likely to pay their utility bills online. Previous findings by (He Mykytyn, 2007 and Ramayah et al, 2006) revealed that perceived benefits are the significant drivers of consumers intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system. These findings were also consistent with previous studies on TAM (Chan Lu, 2004 cited Ramayah et al, 2006). Consumer Characteristics Consumer characteristics variables include gender, age, and nature of occupation, credit/debit card usage, attitude towards innovative payment methods, and individuals personal computer knowledge and skills. Gender Most of the previous researches on online bill payment, it is found that males are more willing to pay their bills through online than females. However, in a study by Masters (2006) it was found that the gender difference between males and females rate of internet usage among physicians are diminishing. In the Sri Lankan context, the computer literacy between males and females are 22% and 18.7% respectively (Department of Census Statistics, 2009). This indicates that the gender differences in how each perceives internet technology are blurring. Age Most studies indicates that the tendency of younger consumers intention of online bill payment is much higher than that of old consumers. This maybe mainly due to the familiarity of the internet based activities at an early stage. The circumstances in Sri Lanka are also similar; this may be mainly due to the high percentage of computer literacy in young people than older people (Department of Census Statistics, 2009). However, in the case of online utility bill payment, a study by Mantel (2000) showed that older people are more likely to pay utility bills via online than young people. General physicians/ Specialists Although most previous researches did not find a significant positive relationship between the user intention in online bill payment and education level, in study by Masters (2006) an interesting relationship between the nature of the work and internet usage was revealed. The study showed that there is a greater tendency for specialists to use the internet more than general physicians (Masters, 2006). Credit/Debit Cards Usage A study by Hayashi Klee (2003) stated that consumers who intent to use new technology have a more tendency in utilizing electronic payment methods than those who do not. Though the credit cards usage in Sri Lanka has indicated a declining trend since the recessionary months of 2008 the debit card usages have shown a considerable increase. Thus this could be assumed as a factor influencing the intention to pay utility bills via online. Attitude Attitude refers to the ones evaluation of consequences on performing a particular behaviour (Karami, 2006). Thus attitude has long been shown to influence behavioural intentions (Ajzen and Fishbein 1980 cited Pavlou and Fygenson, 2006). Computer Skills In most cases this stands as a key barrier for adoption of online transactions. Computer skills are mainly a persons ability to understand the set-up of online payments and the ability to use such online payment systems. Most of previous studies indicate that there is a significant positive relationship between individuals computer skills and intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system. (Please refer appendix C for the summarised table on literature review). Chapter 3 Methodology Secondary Data Analysis Population Sample The population selected for this study comprised of registered physicians in Sri Lanka. In order to obtain the sample, multistage sampling method was used. As illustrated in the figure below, initially cluster sampling method was used to divide the population into sub categories based on geographical area and then on obtaining a list of physicians employed in private hospitals in Colombo city, stratified sampling method was used to further divide the sample into homogeneous groups based on nature of occupation, hence a simple random sample was drawn from the two combined categories. (Please refer appendix D for further details). Secondary Data Analysis The Future of Online Utility Bill Payment Systems Although the idea of online utility bill payment is quite unfamiliar to most Sri Lankan households, online utility bill payments is one of the popular method of paying utility bills, mostly in developed countries such as the US. Hence according to a survey by the NLCCDG in 2005, 75% of the US cities had already implemented a separate webs5%ite for their citizens in order to make utility bill payment (IT Facts, 2005). According to Forrester Research, it is estimated that some47 million US households will pay utility bills online at the end of year 2010, which is a 75% increase from 2004 (illustrated in the figure below). Furthermore, the survey reported that among the consumers who are below the age of 30, the interest in online utility bill payment will grow by 219% and 32% of increase among baby boomers (BCR Access, 2006). Although there are no direct surveys that has been carried out in the Sri Lankan context with regards to online utility bill payments, according to the internet world stats website, the internet users have increased significantly during the past few years hence the percentage of penetration have increased by approximately 3% in year 2010 compared to 1.8% increase in year 2009 (internet world stats, 2010). The figure below illustrates the trend in internet users in Sri Lanka (source: internet world stats, 2010). Although the adoption of new technologies by the Sri Lankans is comparatively sluggish when compared to other Asian countries in the region, the government of Sri Lanka has taken numerous steps in order to enhance the e-commerce base activities. Hence one of the most significant episodes in the authorized regulation of e-commerce in Sri Lanka was the endorsement of the Electronic Transactions Act in 2006. This act was implemented in order to assist the commercial and financial activities by removing barriers to electronic transactions (Kariyawasam, 2008). Consequently since then many companies providing various services, especially utility services, have implemented systems that allows consumers to conduct their transactions via online. Chapter 4 Data Analysis The primary data for this study were collected through a survey based field study which consisted of thirteen questions (please refer appendix E for the questionnaire). The survey was administered to the physicians working at four major private hospitals in Colombo, namely Lanka Hospitals, Oasis Hospital, Asiri Surgical Hospital and Nawaloka Hospital. Fifty (50) questionnaires were randomly distributed among the physicians employed at all four hospitals and the responses were collected two days after the initial distribution of the survey. In total, forty four (44 i.e. 88%) physicians responded. Total of 29 items were used in this empirical study, including customer characteristics, perceived risk, perceived benefits, and merchants website and service features. To calculate the internal consistency of these items, a reliability analysis was performed by computing Cronbachs Alpha for each item. Hence all items are within the range of 0.746 (illustrated in the figure below) which is within the commonly accepted range, i.e., ÃŽÂ ± à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ 0.69 (He Mykytyn, 2007). According to the findings about the awareness level on online utility bill payment systems in Sri Lanka, the results indicated that in general all the respondents were moderately aware. However, when categorized according to the age, those of who were over 46 years old were only slightly aware about online utility bill payment systems, and male respondents demonstrated more knowledge on online utility bill payment systems than female respondents. 1= Never, 2= Almost never, 3= Sometimes, 4= Almost every time, 5= Every timePreferred Bill Payment Options The respondents mostly preferred to use credit and/or debit cards for their online transactions. The debit card usage frequency was higher than the credit card usage for online utility bill payments, although in general a higher number of respondents acquired a credit card. The indirect bill payment method was the most preferred among the respondents, i.e. most consumers preferred to pay their utility bills (excluding the telephone bills) through a third party website such as a bank or portal, or by using software that interacts with the payers bank (Flynn Bowes, 2005). Despite of any age differences, the consumers attitude towards online utility bill payment systems were positive. Hence most respondents thought that it is important that all companies must implement online bill payment systems as opposed to offline payment methods. Regression Analysis A regression analysis was performed using the individuals intention (UI) as the dependent variable and perceived risk (PR), perceived benefits (PB), merchants website service and features (MWSF) and computer skill (CK) as the independent variables. The Equation for this model is as follows Individuals Intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system (UI) = ÃŽÂ ²0 + ÃŽÂ ²1Perceived Risk (PR) +ÃŽÂ ²2 Perceived Benefits (PB) + ÃŽÂ ²3 Merchants Website Service Features (MWSF) + ÃŽÂ ²4 Individuals Computer Skill (CK) i.e. UIn = ÃŽÂ ²0 + ÃŽÂ ²1PRn +ÃŽÂ ²2PBn + ÃŽÂ ²3 MWSFn + ÃŽÂ ²4CKn Where ÃŽÂ ²01234 = Regression coefficients n = 1, 2, 3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 44 Table Regression Analysis Result Dependent Variable: Individuals Intention to Adopt an Online Utility Bill Payment Option Figure Framework on Factors Affecting the Individuals Intention to Adopt an Online Utility Bill Payment System .316 .418 -.281 .238 Individuals Intention to Adopt an Online Utility Bill Payment System Individuals Computer Skill Merchants Website Service Features Perceived Benefits Perceived Risks Therefore from the findings above, it is evident that perceived risks, perceived benefits and individuals computer skill variables indicate a positive relationship with the intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system variable. The merchants website service features variable, however, indicates a negative relationship, this explains that more than the services offered by certain merchants regarding online utility bill payments, respondents were more concerned about factors such as security, trust, privacy, time, and other beneficiaries when it comes to adopting an online utility bill payment system. Chapter 5 Conclusion Recommendation The main objective of this study was to empirically investigate the factors affecting the individuals intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system in Sri Lanka. The primary investigation on the topic identified that there are several factors influencing the adoption of online utility bill payment systems by consumers in the country. Since the country is still in its infancy of adopting online payment methods as oppose to offline payment methods, the study was conducted among physicians, a highly qualified and professional set consumers who are more likely to be in touch with new technologies. Thus the findings of this study are from a survey that consisted of 44 physicians employed at four major private hospitals in the Colombo city. The results indicated that although in general all the respondents were reasonably aware about the online utility bill payment systems that were available for them, the younger who were below the age of 30 were extremely aware about online utility bill payment systems compared to the rest of age groups. Additionally it was also found that male respondents were more aware about online payments than female respondents. The general usage of credit/debit cards and online bank accounts for the payments of utility bills was found to be relatively less. This can be also related to the finding from the secondary research which analysed that the usage of credit and debit cards has declined in Sri Lanka due to various reasons such as the economic turmoil and high interest charges applied by subsequent banks which issue the credit/ debit cards. Thus, the use of online bank accounts for the settlement of online utility bill payments showed a higher rate over credit and debit card usages. Moreover, although most respondents stated that they preferred to pay their telephone bills directly from the consequent merchants website, for other payments such water and electricity, most respondents preferred to adopt payment systems that were implemented by third party vendors such as banks. Concerning the consumers attitude towards online utility bill payment systems, majority of the respondents stated that it is important for utility service companies to mark their presences on the internet thus implement online payment systems. Interestingly, apart from the younger age group below 30, respondents between the ages 41-45 also indicated a high positive attitude towards the importance of online utility bill payment systems. Hence the survey revealed that most respondents were concerned about the credit cards frauds, security levels, and privacy when it came to making online payments. Thus these factors which fell under the variable perceived risks indicated a positive relationship with the individuals intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system. Furthermore, it was found that respondents enthusiasm to make online utility bill payments also depended on perceived benefits, which included factors such as ease of use of the system, speed, avoidance of late payments and queues, and time. This also supported as positive with the individuals intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system. Moreover, individuals computer skill which was measured using the information based on the years of computer experience and internet experience which the respondents possessed supported positive (although weak) relationship with the adoption of an online utility bill payment system. Nevertheless, the impact of merchants website service and features were not considered as an important or influential factor by the respondents to adopt an online utility bill payment system. This may be due to the lack of design and service features that are made available to the customers by the existing utility companies. In conclusion, this investigation was carried out as an extension of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) which was initially developed by Davis in 1989 (cited in Ramayah et al., 2005); with additional variables that were assumed to affect the individuals intention to adopt online utility bill payment systems, which is a branch of e-commerce associated with online consumer behaviour. Hence according to the findings in this investigation, it could be assumed that the youthful consumers who have received a higher level of education are more aware about online bill payment systems thus are more notably agreeable to adopt online bill payment systems as a convenience way of settling utility bills. It can also be assumed that the method of online utility bill payment is not being widely accepted in Sri Lanka due to the lack in consumers confidence on security of payments, privacy issues, and their trust on particular merchants. Therefore companies must take necessary actions required to improve to consumers confidence about online bill payments and further emphasis and educate the consumers on particular benefits that will be offered to them through the utilisation of online bill payment systems.